We all love it because we hate ladders. Here's a guide to SRT written by the Boston Grotto from the U.S.A. Bear in mind that it describes American techniques.
THE BOSTON GROTTO GUIDE TO SRT
by
Kevin W. Harris
July 9, 1987
1
1. Introduction
SRT stands for Single Rope Techniques. This is the name
given to the set of techniques for ascending and descending
vertical pitches (cliffs, pits, steep slipperly slopes) using
just one static rope. The name is given to distinguish it
from older techniques that use more equipment, such as cable
ladder climbing, belayed technical climbing, and belayed rope
climbing. Knowledge of such techniques is critical to the
safe exploration of a large proportion of the caves in North
America and the world, particularly in the areas frequented
by Boston Grotto members. In the past decade or two, SRT has
become the dominant climbing method used by Boston Grotto
members to negotiate vertical exposure in caves. Its
advantages are:
1. The techniques work well under extreme hardship.
With practice, they can be executed safely and
reliably, even when you are wet, cold, or tired,
when you are alone and far from help, and can be
easily extended to rescue techniques.
2. The equipment is inexpensive, light, and easy to
carry.
3. The techniques are easy to learn.
4. Safety is built into each piece of equipment and
technique.
The chief competition for SRT today is belayed cable
ladder climbing. Cable ladders are preferred over SRT for
pitches that are short (less than 60 feet), because seat and
chest harnesses are unnecessary. Beyond this length, the
extra arm strength required for ladder climbing makes it
unattractiveMespecially for wet pitches. Because you need a
belay rope anyway, cable ladders are also at a disadvantage
deep in a cave because of the extra trouble of bringing them
along.
This guide is divided into 8 sections:
1. Equipment
2. Rigging Techniques
3. Descending Techniques
4. Ascending Techniques
5. Useful Knots
6. Rescue Techniques
7. Practicing
8. Other Information
Beginners should familiarize themselves with the
personal equipment sections first, then the descending
techniques, then the ascending techniques. Advanced SRT
users should become experts at all the equipment available,
the rigging techniques, and finally the rescue techniques.
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2. Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the members of the Boston
and Nittany Grottos, with which I've spent many a pleasant
hour climbing ropes in caves. In particular, I'd like to
thank Brian Kolka and Tom O'Holleran who first taught me to
climb, and John Evans, who taught me most of the rest. The
safety considerations are mostly based on personal experience
and common sense. In most places where I describe how
something can go wrong, I've seen it go wrong! Pay attention
and think before you act!
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3. Controversy
Not all experienced vertical cavers agree with all the
statements made in this document, or any document for that
matter. There are many different ways to accomplish the goal
of getting up and down ropes, and no one method is right for
all situations. New equipment and techniques are always
being invented, and different techniques are popular in
different regions. Even the terminology varies from region
to region. The reader should not take this information as
gospel, but as simply one set of workable methods that Boston
Grotto cavers have used with success in the recent past. You
should use caution and common sense as to what is safe and
what works. Please communicate any problems you find with
this document and the techniques described to the Boston
Grotto and the author.
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4. Caveat
The Boston Grotto and the author assume no
responsibility for injuries or other problems arising from
the use of these techniques. SRT involves exposure to
significant risk of falling and other injuries. Alcoholic
beverages and other drugs should never be used when SRT
activities are taking place. Don't be misled into thinking
that this document is an adequate training manual on its own.
It is only meant to supplement personal instruction. SRT use
should always be supervised by experienced individuals. The
English language is often inadequate to describe the concepts
involved.
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5. Equipment
This chapter is divided into two major sections:
equipment that each person must have, and equipment that is
shared among the party doing the exploration.
A word about expense: it is false economy to skimp on
your vertical equipment. In comparison to other sports, the
prices are very low. A set of quality equipment that will
last for years currently costs under $250 (see itemized list
below). More to the point, your life depends on your
equipment. It is sheer stupidity to injure yourself because
you are too cheap to buy a quality helmet, harness, or rope.
One small injury can end up costing far more than the total
of all the equipment you'll ever need. Don't skimp on your
time either. All these techniques can and should be
practiced above ground before using them in a cave.
Descending a pit deep in a cave is no place to practice a
technique for the first time. Doing so will endanger your
companions as well as yourself. Practice also gives you
confidence to explore places you wouldn't be capable of
exploring otherwise.
5.1 Where To Get It
Mail order:
1. Bob and Bob, P.O. Box 441, Lewisburg, WV 24901.
Ropes, harnesses, ascenders, descenders,
carabiners, helmets, chest boxes, webbing. Phone
orders: (304) 772-5049.
2. The Speleoshoppe, P.O. Box 297, Fairdale, KY
40118. Helmets, ropes, webbing, carabiners, cable
ladders, harnesses, ascenders, descenders, chest
boxes, nuts, pulleys. Phone orders: (800)
626-5877.
3. Custom Cave Gear, P.O. Box 7351, Charlottesville,
VA 22906. Simmons Roller manufacturer.
4. Mike Fischesser, 384 Field Point Road, Greenwich,
CT 06830. Butt Strap Harness.
5. Gibbs Products, 202 Hampton Avenue, Salt Lake
City, Utah, 84111. Gibbs Ascenders manufacturer.
6. Caving Supplies Ltd., 19 London Road, Buxton,
Derbyshire SK17 9PA, England. Phone orders, from
USA: 011-44-0298-5040. (Charge on VISA for best
rates)
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Boston Area Local:
1. Wilderness House. 1048 Commonwealth Ave., Boston,
MA (617) 277-1519.
2. REI. Brand new store. Exit 40 off Rt. 128,
Reading, Mass. (617) 944-5103.
3. Eastern Mountain Sports (EMS). 1041 Commonwealth
Ave, Brighton, Ma. (617) 254-4250. Also Pheasant
Lane Mall, Nashua, NH. Also Vose Farm Road,
Peterborough, NH, (603) 924-7231.
4. Moor and Mountain, 63 Park St., Andover, Mass.
(617) 475-3665.
5. The RW Shop, Route 13, Brookline, NH 03033 (603)
673-5867, Custom harness maker (specializes in
parachute harnesses)
5.2 Personal Equipment
This section discusses the items that each climber must
have to use SRT. It includes:
1. Climbing helmet
2. Light source
3. Sturdy boots
4. Climbing gloves
5. Seat harness
6. Chest harness
7. Descending devices
8. Ascending devices
9. Carrying equipment
10. Tools
11. Conditioning
Under some conditions, it is sufficient to have enough
equipment for descent only. Generally, this allows you to
omit the chest harness and ascending devices.
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In some sections, I will describe two levels of
equipment: minimal and normal. Minimal equipment should only
be used in two situations: practice and emergency. It is
important to learn how to ``get along'' with minimal
equipment if a piece of your normal equipment fails or is
lost. However, you should never plan to use minimal
equipment as your primary equipment on a Boston Grotto cave
trip. While it is safe for a few uses, it is often
uncomfortable and you will want to replace it with better
equipment as soon as possible.
Things to leave home: jewelry and long hair. Jewelry
can get lost, of course. More important, rings and earrings
can get caught in the equipment and result in painful
injuries. Long hair is particularly prone to getting caught
in descending devices. This is painful and dangerousMthe
only recovery is to cut off the offending hair. Not only
does this result in poor appearance, it is possible that you
will accidentally cut the rope. Rope is extremely vulnerable
to sharp objects when it is under tension.
5.2.1 Climbing Helmet
Although the MSA Comfo-Caps and Fibre-Metal helmets are
popular with many beginning cavers, they are inadequate for
SRT. Their biggest problem is that they tend to fall off in
any sort of accident or fall. In order to solve this
problem, a helmet with a 4 point suspension is required.
Most of the suppliers offer a high quality climbing helmet to
which a lamp bracket can be bolted on. I've used the ``Joe
Brown'' model for years with satisfying results in situations
where the cheaper brands would have come off. Helmets should
be worn even in above ground practice sessions, because of
the chance of a fall or that debris will be dislodged from
the top of a cliff or tree.
5.2.2 Light Sources
A cap mounted carbide lantern can damage or destroy a
nylon rope in a few seconds, leading to almost certain
injury. For this reason, you should always extinguish your
lamp before climbing or descending the rope. Most carbide
cavers solve this problem by taping a small auxiliary
flashlight to their helmets and using it only while climbing.
Electric cavers have a problem with ropes too. Acid
leaking from batteries can badly weaken nylon rope with
almost no visible damage. Thus, batteries and ropes should
always be kept apart in storage. One easy method is to store
them in separate garbage bags during transport.
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5.2.3 Sturdy Boots
The main requirement for boots used in SRT is that they
be stiff. The foot loops used in some ascending techniques
can bind very tightly. If sneakers or soft boots are used,
your feet can be tightly squeezed or pulled into an awkward
angle resulting in great discomfort.
5.2.4 Climbing Gloves
Some people have had problems with rope burn when using
SRT. For this reason, they like to carry a spare pair of
gloves with their vertical equipment, in addition to normal
caving gloves. Wet, muddy caving gloves are unpleasant to
use when climbing. All leather gloves are popular because
they are tough, fit well, and still allow you to sufficient
dexterity to work the equipment. Other people feel that the
extra difficulty of manipulating gear while wearing gloves
makes them unattractive. Cotton or other loose fitting
gloves can actually get caught in rappel devices, so these
should not be used.
5.2.5 Seat Harness
The seat harness is the first basic requirement of going
up or down a rope. It is the thing that holds you while you
are attached to the rope. The basic requirements are that it
be secure and comfortable. Security is basically insured by
strong materials and a tight fit. Comfort is never total,
but is greatly helped by using wide webbing and
adjustability. When buying one, make sure there is method of
attaching a carabiner near the crotch, this is required for
both descent and some climbing systems.
5.2.5.1 Minimal
A minimal seat harness called a ``diaper sling'' can be
made from about 8 feet of 1'' tubular webbing and a locking
carabiner. Tie the webbing into a loop using a loose water
knot, don't tighten it yet. Stretch the loop out
horizontally behind your back with both hands. Bring your
hands forward around your waist forming a loose ``double
belt'' with the webbing. Holding the ``belt'' with one hand,
reach your other hand through your legs and grab one strand
of the ``belt'' from behind your back and pull it forward
between your legs. This now gives you three loops, two from
each side of your waist, and one through your legs. Now clip
the carabiner through all three loops and lock it off.
That's it. You can clip the ascending and descending devices
directly to the carabiner, but it is safer if you leave it
locked and use other 'biner's for the attachment.
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The first time you try it, the diaper sling will be too
tight or too loose. That is why you tied the water knot
loosely. Take it off and the adjust position of the knot
until it fits tightly. A properly tightened diaper sling
will not let you stand up straight. Once you are hanging
from the rope, everything loosens up, if it isn't on tightly
to start with, you could fall out of it. Once it is properly
adjusted, take it off again, tighten the water knot, trim off
the extra length, and seal the cut end.
The disadvantages of the diaper sling are:
1. It has no redundancy. If the sling is cut at any
point for any reason, you will fall out of it.
2. It isn't adjustable. You need a different length
for practicing in shorts on a hot summer day, and
wearing bulky clothes in a cave.
3. It is uncomfortable. The 1'' webbing cuts into
your skin and leaves bruises after only a few
minutes.
For these reasons, you should get a better seat harness
as soon as possible.
5.2.5.2 Normal
For normal usage, a commercially made seat harness is
highly recommended. A variety of models are available; each
supplier sells at least one. Try to check out a few
different models before buying one. Most are made from 2''
flat seat belt webbing. This is much more comfortable than
tubular. Most have an adjustable waist strap. Get a size
that gives you plenty of extra strap when worn over your
everyday clothes. This will allow for enough extra width to
accommodate bulky, muddy, cave clothes. Make sure the seams
are tight. They should be sewn with nylon thread to prevent
rotting. It should be redundantMcutting any one strap should
not allow you to fall out of the harness. A couple of extra
loops are handy for hanging packs and extra equipment. Most
also require a carabiner in the front for attaching you to
the rope.
5.2.6 Chest Harness
A chest harness is not required for descending a rope.
It is not even strictly required for ascending. However,
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there is a basic problem of trying to stay upright on the
rope. With ascending devices attached to your legs, the
natural tendency is to fall backwards upside down. Normally,
this disaster is prevented by hanging from your seat harness,
but this does you no good when you are actually climbing.
Without a chest harness, your arms quickly tire from the
exertion of holding yourself upright, especially after lots
of crawling or canyon climbing.
Thus, a chest harness is never used to actually hang
from the rope, as one might imagine. Instead, it is used to
hold your upper body as tightly as possible to the rope
during the actual climbing. Ideally, once attached, you
should be able to climb the rope without ever grasping it
with your hands. If this principle is obeyed, you will
always be able to get out of a cave, regardless of how tired
your arms are. This is one of the prime advantages of SRT
over cable ladders, which are difficult and dangerous with
tired arms.
5.2.6.1 Minimal
A minimal chest harness can be made from about 6' of 1''
tubular webbing and a carabiner. As with the minimal seat
harness, tie the webbing into a loop using a loose water
knot. Slip the loop over one arm. Give the loop a half
twist and pass it behind your back, then slip the other arm
through the loop. You will now have the loop hanging loosely
from both arms, forming an X on your back. Clip the
carabiner to the loop at the front of one arm. Pull the
carabiner toward the middle of your chest. Pull the loop on
the opposite arm toward your chest and clip it into the
carabiner.
As with the minimal seat harness, the chest harness
should be adjusted very tightly. The carabiner should be
adjusted to be only an inch or two under your chin. The
proper tightness should not allow you to inhale completely.
The looser it is, the farther you will hang back from the
rope and the harder it will be to climb. Once you have the
proper tightness, set the knot, then trim and seal the ends
of the webbing. In use, the carabiner is clipped around the
rope as well, thereby holding your upper body tightly to it.
The disadvantages of the minimal chest harness are:
1. It has no redundancy. If the sling is cut at any
point for any reason, you will fall out of it.
2. It isn't adjustable. This is a worse problem even
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than for the seat harness. The proper length
needed when wearing caving clothes is much too
large for practicing in a tee shirt. In fact,
many people use a strap with adjustable buckles
for this very reason.
3. It is uncomfortable, the 1'' webbing cuts into
your skin and leaves bruises after only a few
minutes.
4. Since the carabiner is holding you upright, the
rope bends sharply as it passes through the
'biner. Often this bend is 45 degrees or more.
The looser the harness, the more the bend. The
'biner thus becomes a friction device. A large
portion of your climbing energy goes into passing
the rope through the 'biner.
5. The rope friction can unscrew 'biner lock if it is
not rigged properly.
For these reasons, you should get a better chest harness
as soon as possible.
5.2.6.2 Normal
As with seat harnesses, commercially made chest
harnesses are available, although not as commonly as seat
harnesses. There are even integrated seat-chest harnesses
that are becoming popular. The most important improvement is
to replace the carabiner with a low friction roller of some
kind. A newly popular device is the Simmons Roller, older
ones are the Gosset chest box and the Blue Water box.
5.2.7 Descending Devices
In descent, the idea is to run the rope through a series
of bends that provide friction, thus slowing your descent to
a safe rate. A wide variety of devices are available
according the distance to be descended, the weight, and the
cost.
For descents of less than 100 feet, low priced devices
such as the figure 8 ring and a carabiner-brake-bar set are
acceptable. For longer drops, a rappel rack is the device
used most often by cavers today. I will discuss the use of
these three devices below.
A figure 8 ring is a fused pair of rings, as the name
implies, usually made of cast aluminum. By wrapping the rope
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around the large ring, and clipping the small one into your
seat harness, sufficient friction is available to control
your descent. Its advantages are that it is light and cheap.
Its disadvantages are:
1. It is subject to a particularly nasty failure
mode, whereby the climber can be locked onto the
rope with a ring knot. Preventing this is the
purpose of the ``horns'' on some figure 8
descenders.
2. It gives no method for controlling the amount of
friction.
3. It gives insufficient friction for heavy
individuals on clean and flexible ropes.
4. It cannot be ``locked off'' to stop completely, so
you can rest, adjust your equipment, or enjoy the
scenery.
5. Its use imparts a substantial strain on the rope,
and gives the rope a significant amount of twist.
A carabiner/brake-bar set is a set of (usually 2)
non-locking carabiners, linked together with one heavy chain
link (available at any hardware store). Onto each carabiner
is an aluminum ``brake bar'', threaded over the gate. The
rope is threaded over these brake bars and holds them tightly
into the 'biners. This provides the friction.
The advantages of this device are: It is very small and
light. It is about as cheap as the Figure 8. It is somewhat
trickier to attach to the rope properly, but it cannot knot
up the way a Figure 8 can. It is somewhat easier to control
the friction than with a Figure 8. It can be locked off
almost as easily as a rack. The carabiners can be used
individually if necessary for another purpose.
The disadvantages of this device are:
1. There is no way to control the amount of friction.
2. The carabiners can get jammed open if the device
is used improperly, substantially weakening it and
perhaps bending the 'biners.
3. It is tricky to learn to use properly.
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The most versatile descending device is the rappel rack.
It consists of a rod of strong steel, bent into a U shape.
One end of the U is extended and contains a ring to attach to
a carabiner. The other end terminates with a cap, usually
one or two large nuts. The U is long enough to allow the
device to be squeezed slightly. A series of brake bars,
usually 5 or 6, are threaded onto the U, and latch across it
on alternating sides. The rope is threaded around the bars.
The great advantage of the rack is its ability to
control the friction, and thereby the rate of descent. By
pushing the bars toward the top, more friction is gained and
the descent slows. By pulling them down, there is less
friction and descent speeds up. Usually nuts are threaded
between the top 2 or 3 bars to prevent the device from
seizing up from excess friction. The rack can be ``locked
off'', so it does not move at all, so the climber can stop
and rest. Its chief disadvantage is its size and weight.
The larger models don't even fit into a standard size pack,
and the smaller models lose some of the main advantages.
5.2.8 Ascending Devices
Ascending devices work by gripping the rope tightly,
allowing the climber to use them to lift himself up when tied
to his legs and feet. There are two basic kinds, those with
a spring clamp to grip the rope and those without. The Gibbs
Ascender is the prime example of the latter. The Jumar
Ascender is the prime example of the former.
A safe climbing system uses 3 devices attached to you
and the rope at all times, one attached to each leg, and a
safety attached to your seat harness. The safety allows you
to rest. The basic idea in climbing is to raise each device
to a higher level on the ropes, then stand on it to climb
higher. An experienced climber can walk up a rope as fast as
he climbs stairs. In most systems, a spare Jumar is very
handy for passing lips and knots.
The basic Gibbs Ascender consists of 3 pieces, the
``taco shell'', the cam, and the pivot pin. The taco shell
is an aluminum sleeve shaped and colored like its name. A
hole is drilled through the two sides to accommodate the
pivot pin. The cam rides in the shell, with its teeth
pointed into the bend in the taco shell. The pivot pin is
inserted into the side of the taco shell, through the cam,
and out the other side of the taco shell. In operation, the
shell is wrapped around the rope, the cam pivots on the pin
and grips the rope when weight is applied to other end of the
cam. Strings or chains hold the pieces together when off the
rope. The climber need only attach himself to the cam by a
sling, although most climbing systems also have an attachment
to the shell.
15
The advantages of the Gibbs Ascenders is that they are
cheap, light, don't come off accidentally, and grip securely
on wet and muddy ropes. Also, they slide up the rope easily
because there is no spring tension grabbing the rope when
they are not weight loaded. The disadvantages are that they
are awkward and take two hands to take on and off the rope.
Also the three parts can come apart when off rope and get
lost.
The Jumar Ascender is just one piece, usually cast
aluminum. Instead of the weight of the climber, its cam is
forced into the rope by spring tension. It has a hole in the
side to allow the device to be taken on and off the rope with
one hand while holding back the cam. Usually it is attached
to the climber by a small rope to the feet or seat harness.
The CMI ascender is similar to the Jumar, but made of
thick sheet aluminum instead of cast. This means that it is
more resistant to cracking. It is also somewhat more
expensive. I will refer to the CMI ascender and the Jumar
interchangeably below. Petzl and Clog also make similar
devices. You should avoid the smaller, lower priced Clog and
Petzl ascenders without the spring loaded gate locking pin.
These require unclipping from your harness to get them on and
off the rope. This is dangerous. They are also more
difficult to work, because they don't have a handle like the
larger models.
5.2.9 Equipment Carrying
It is useful to have a sturdy pack for carrying your
vertical equipment. For several reasons, it is not a good
idea to carry it in your regular cave pack. First, the
equipment tends to get very muddy, which then coats
everything else. Second, you often don't need to carry the
vertical gear with you at all times. Frequently, it is
convenient to leave it at the bottom of the last pitch. Lost
Creek packs are excellent for this purpose.
If you are tired, it is a good idea to try to avoid
climbing with a packMfor short pitches, someone at the top
can haul it up for you. The lighter you are, the easier it
will be for you to climb. If you decide to carry equipment
while on rope, it is not a good idea to sling it over your
shoulders, as you would normally carry it. This is because
it makes you top heavy, thereby more likely to tip upside
down, and making more work for your arms when climbing. A
better method is to clip your packs to a carabiner and hang
them from your seat harness carabiner. Then it hangs
harmlessly between your legs. For this reason, it is a good
idea to use a large triangle shaped carabiner for the front
of your seat harness.
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Anything that you attach to your seat carabiner should
be removable without unlocking it. A good rule to follow is
that each piece of equipment, pack, rope bag, etc., should
have its own carabiner for attaching to anything.
5.2.10 Tools
A variety of small tools are invaluable when working
with SRT. Carabiners are all-purpose attachment devices,
every climber should carry a few extra ones. A small pair of
pliers are sometimes necessary for loosening carabiner gates
that are covered with slippery mud. A small butane cigarette
lighter is useful for sealing the cut ends of nylon rope and
webbing. A sharp knife is useful for cutting rope and
webbing. Some sort of spike is useful for loosening knots.
5.2.11 Conditioning
Rope climbing is hard work. It is especially hard if
you do not partake of regular exercise. Fortunately the best
exercises for this are the most popular ones, running,
walking, swimming, bicycling, etc. Anything that strengthens
your stamina, legs, and wind will help. Arm strength isn't
as important as with cable ladders, but it does make things
much easier.
5.2.12 Costs
To give an idea of the cost of a climbing system, here
is a summary from the May 1987 catalog from Bob and Bob.
1. B&B Caving Harness (Seat Harness)...........$45.00
2. Triangular Screw Link........................$4.35
3. SMC Aluminum Carabiners, 2@6.25.............$12.50
4. 2'' webbing with buckle for chest harness....$7.50
5. 1'' tubular webbing, 15' for slings..........$3.15
6. SMC rack....................................$17.95
7. SMC Top Brake Bar, w/angled slot and training
groove.......................................$3.75
8. SMC Aluminum Brake Bars w/angled slots, 5@2.15....
$10.25
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9. Simmons Roller..............................$22.00
10. Gibbs Ascenders, 3@28.50....................$85.50
11. Shock Cord, 3 yards..........................$1.35
12. Lost Creek Pack, ``Caver's Special''........$34.00
Total: $247.30
5.3 Common Equipment
This section discusses the items that each group must
have to use SRT. It includes:
1. Rope
2. Pads
3. Carabiners
4. Bolts
5.3.1 Rope
This is the only component of SRT that is not redundant,
i.e. that has no backup in case of failure. For this reason
its selection and care are vitally important to the safety of
the climber. Ropes for normal use are generally 11mm
(approx. 7/16 inch) in diameter. These ropes are at least
10 times stronger than necessary to hold a single climber.
Generally, only low stretch nylon ropes are used for
SRT. Manila and other natural fiber ropes are not suitable
because they can rot and lose strength without visible
evidence. Polypropylene is unsuitable because it has no
stretch and has a melting point not far above the standard
working temperature of the descent devices. High stretch
ropes used by rock climbers are not suitable because of they
are designed to take high shock loads, not the continuous
loads of climbing. The high stretch is a disadvantage in
caving because it leads to uncomfortable bouncing when
climbing or descending. The slight stretch of nylon ropes
allows a comfortable ``give'' when moving on the rope, but
not so much much as to cause significant bounce.
The only routine care necessary for nylon caving ropes
is to keep them clean and out of the sun. The UV in strong
sunlight can weaken the nylon fibers. Prolonged use of dirty
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ropes can allow the dirt to work into the fibers and cut the
strength significantly. A ``rope washer'' device that
attaches to a standard garden hose is available. Ropes can
also be washed in an ordinary washing machine. Use a mild
fabric softener to improve the handling. It is a good idea
to ``chain'' the rope ahead of time to prevent an unholy
tangle.
Ropes should be given considerable care once inside the
cave. A rope bag is certainly a good idea. Especially, they
should not be stepped on or laid on. The stress of such use
could cause a sharp rock to cut through the rope unnoticed.
For this reason, caving ropes should be thoroughly examined
before and after each trip to check for external cuts and
weak spots. Weak spots are noticable because of their change
in pliability. Ropes should be padded wherever they run over
a sharp edge under tension.
There are two kinds of rope construction suitable for
caving. They are called kernmantle and laid. Kernmantle
(German for ``core and sheath'') is the most popular. It
consists of a core of long straight fibers running the length
of the rope. This provides the bulk of the overall strength.
On the outside is a tightly woven sheath to protect the core
from abrasion. The tighter the sheath is woven, the more it
protects the core, but the less flexible the rope becomes.
The most popular kernmantle ropes are made by Blue Water
and Pidgeon Mountain Industries. Blue Water II and III
differ slightly in overall strength, but are popular mostly
for their flexibility. Insufficient rappel friction is
sometimes a problem on new Blue Water ropes. PMI ropes are
slightly stronger overall, and have a reputation for
significantly better abrasion resistance than Blue Water
ropes. They pay the penalty in reduced flexibility, however.
It is sometimes difficult to tie a knot or thread a length of
dirty PMI rope.
Laid ropes are the ones that appear to be ``twisted''.
This is an older, simpler construction process. The wrapping
process does not actually impart a twist to the individual
fibers, although they appear that way. Anyone who tries to
twist fibers together quickly learns that this process
quickly leads to spontaneous unravelling. Since laid ropes
are not actually twisted, they resist unravelling
surprisingly well. They do start to come unraveled pretty
fast when freshly cut, however, so care should be taken to
heat seal and tape the ends to prevent this from happening.
The chief advantages of laid rope is its lower cost and
greater flexibility than kernmantle rope. One significant
advantage over kernmantle is that potentially damaged
sections of rope can be partially separated and inspected
without harming the rope. One brand dominates the laid rope
19
segment of the caving market, it is called Goldline for its
gold color, made by The Cordage Group. The chief
disadvantage of laid rope is its occasional propensity to
twist under load. This can cause dizziness and
disorientation which is very unpleasant.
5.3.2 Pads
Rope pads are usually made from carpet remnants,
although they can be made of almost anything in a pinch. The
basic idea is to protect the rope from rubbing on a rock
projection or lip. This type of wear is the greatest danger
to the use of SRT ropes. Unlike dynamic ropes, where large
lengths pass over an obstacle, in SRT the same section of
rope will rub repeatedly on one spot when rappelling or
climbing. Thus, such projections should be padded and each
climber should examine each spot where the rope passes over
such a projection.
To make a rope pad, a carpet remnant is cut into
approximately 2'x2'. Two or more holes are punched along one
edge, and parachute cord or other heavy string is tied in.
The strings are gathered into a single cord 10-20 feet long.
In use, the pad is positioned and tied to a rock or a bush.
Pad placement is an important aspect of rope rigging for SRT.
5.3.3 Carabiners
For rigging SRT rope, only high quality locking
carabiners should be used. This is especially true when
sharp offset angles are necessary to properly position the
rope. An example is in a horizontal ``Tyrolean Traverse''
rig. The high strain introduced by these angles can put
enormous strain on the rope and carabiner.
5.3.4 Bolts
Occasionally a natural rigging point cannot be found.
At such a point, often the only alternative is to drive an
expansion bolt into the rock and attach a carabiner to a
``hanger'' threaded into the bolt. This is generally
accomplished by using a hammer and ``star drill'' to drive a
small hole a few inches into the rock, followed by placement
of an expansion bolt which grips the rock tightly.
This works well on external rock faces, but is sometimes
less reliable in a cave, where the limestone is being eroded
by groundwater. A significant fraction of the American
caving community has an aesthetic aversion to the use of
bolts, especially where they are unnecessary. A large part
20
of the European caving community, however, uses an entirely
different set of techniques and equipment, characterized by
the use of thinner (9mm) rope, different ascending and
descending devices, and multiple rope attachment points,
called ``rebelays'', to prevent the rope from touching the
rock at any point.
21
6. Rigging Techniques
Properly rigging the rope is an art. Other
publications, especially Montgomery, devote a large
discussion to this topic. It is important because the rope
is the only part of SRT where redundancy is not used. The
basic ideas are simple: use the shortest rope required for
the pitch, attach the rope securely, keep the rope off
dangerous projections, choose a safe spot to work at the top
and bottom of the climb, and try to keep the climbers out of
falling water.
If sufficient rope length is available, it is a good
idea to avoid using a knot. Knots generally weaken the rope,
especially where the rope is bent severely. The best method
is to use repeated wraps around a large rock or tree (the
primary anchor), so that the strain is evenly distributed
over a large area. A secondary anchor should also be used,
if there is any possibility that the primary anchor could
fail. The end is usually tied off with a figure 8 loop, with
a carabiner clipped to the loop and the hanging part of the
rope.
If multiple wraps to carry the load with friction are
not possible, a single loop around the anchor must be used.
A figure 8 loop, with carabiner tie-off is still the knot of
choice. If no carabiner is available, a properly tied and
set bowline is recommended.
Any place the rope runs over a sharp angle should be
padded. Tie a figure 8 knot in the free end before throwing
the rope over the lip. This will save any rappellers from
falling off the end if the length is insufficient. The first
rappeller should be prepared to place a pad in an unfamiliar
pitch. It is sometimes possible to prevent the rope from
running over a sharp lip by setting the rigging a little
higher than where the descent is started. This should be
done if possible to make it easier for the climbers to get on
and off the rope.
A water spray is of great concern. The rope should be
rigged as far as possible from the water. The worst
situation is encountered by people waiting at the bottom of a
pitch for a climber. A significant water spray causes a cold
clammy breeze that makes it very hard to keep warm. Getting
very wet on a vertical pitch in an unfamiliar cave is
generally grounds for aborting the trip at that point,
especially if you are unprepared for it.
22
7. Descending Techniques
Descending a rope using a seat harness and a mechanical
friction device is called ``rappelling'' by the Boston
Grotto. The standard British word for this is ``abseiling''.
The basic steps are:
1. Make sure the area is clear and that the other
members of your party know you are preparing to
descend.
2. Thread the rope through your friction device.
3. Signal ``on rope''.
4. Have another member of your party check your
device for proper threading.
5. Adjust the friction.
6. Walk backwards over the lip of the drop. Try not
to dislodge loose debris, which could hit the rope
and damage it.
7. Carefully pass over the lip.
8. Control your rate of descent.
9. Get to safety at the bottom.
10. Unthread the rope.
11. Signal ``off rope''.
It is important to follow these steps completely, and in
order. Once they are learned, they can be done safely and
automatically even under duress.
7.1 Preparing To Descend
Make sure your seat harness is not damaged and is worn
properly. Pull it as high as possible on your body. It will
ride up on you eventually, so it will be more comfortable if
you adjust your clothes ahead of time that way. It also
keeps you more upright. Make sure your packs and equipment
are attached to you in the desired manner. Make sure that
the other members of your party know that you are preparing
to descend, including those already at the bottom.
23
7.2 Threading The Rope
Stand in a safe place while threading the rope.
Sometimes it is necessary to clip your harness into a safety
line to do this. If so, you should have the safety (Jumar,
Gibbs, 'biner) attachment ready ahead of time, and clip into
the safety line before starting to thread the rope. Carbide
cavers should extinguish their lamps at this point and switch
to electric. Unlink all your brake bars, pull up sufficient
slack, and begin to thread the rope through the device. With
brake bar devices, make sure the rope is threaded so as to
hold hook end of the bars INTO the device, not away from it,
when your weight is applied. Adjust the path of the hanging
rope around your body for the descent, so that friction can
be varied. Avoid allowing the rope to rub your harness at
any point. Nylon-nylon rubbing will produce heat and can
quickly cut the harness. Put your gloves on.
7.3 Signalling ``On Rope''
Signal ``on rope'' by either yelling, or by a whistle
code, to inform the people at the bottom that you are
starting your descent.
7.4 Checking
Before putting your weight on the rope, have another
member of your party inspect your harness and threading for
safety.
7.5 Adjusting Friction
Put your weight on the rope and adjust the friction so
that the rope slides smoothly through the device with some
effort. You should need to put most of your weight on the
rope before you move at all. If the rope runs too easily,
add friction by adding another brake bar or wrapping around
your body. If the rope doesn't move at all, remove friction
by removing a brake bar or allowing less of your body to
contact the rope.
Take your stance for negotiating the lip. Grasp the
rope with one hand above the device to stabilize your body
with respect to the rope. Wrap the free end around your back
and grasp it there with your other hand. This is your
control hand. For more friction, wrap the free end more
tightly around your body. For less, allow your control hand
to swing farther away. Avoid the temptation to try
controlling friction with your upper hand.
24
7.6 Negotiating The Lip
When crossing the lip, the two important principles are
to maintain stability avoid letting the descent device scrape
on the rock. To maintain stability, you need to stand with
feet about shoulder width apart, knees slightly bent, and
square on the rock, so you don't get pulled sideways off
balance. You also need to keep your body at about right
angles to the rope, to avoid being pulled into the rock. By
keeping the descent device off the rock, you avoid allowing
the rope to become maladjusted or partially unthreaded in the
device. Figure 8 users should be especially careful not to
allow the rope to ride up the deviceMit will form a ring knot
which is very difficult to recover from.
For a lip with a sharp angle, the best method is to
stand right at the edge and lean back. This is somewhat
frightening for beginners, but should be earnestly attempted
because it is important to overcome the fear early and learn
the proper technique. As you lean farther back, letting the
rope through slowly, your legs will eventually become
horizontal, holding you away from the lip. This will cause
considerable force on your legs, often more than normal
gravity because of the rope angle. You need to start walking
down the slope at this point, to avoid being turned upside
down. Walk down the slope slowly, until the rope contacts
the lip and begins to angle downward. The rope should be set
over the desired spot on the lip, on the pad where it won't
slide off sideways. At this point you can continue walking
down until you hang free.
If the lip is overhung at the very top, it may be
difficult to get over this way. You can't walk down the
slope without losing your footing and falling against the
lip, and if you don't walk down, you will lose your balance
and turn upside down. In this situation, it is recommended
to go over on your knees instead of standing. In this way,
you can hang free, without a violent swing, as soon as you
clear the lip.
_ _ _______ ___ _______ ____
7.7 Control The Descent Rate
The friction should be adjusted such that when you are
hanging free, you are descending continuously. You should
not need to push rope through the device, which results in a
jerky descent which is hard on your body and the rope.
Likewise, you should be able to stop your descent at any time
to add friction. A fast descent is not necessarily bad, as
long as it is controlled. A slow descent is not necessarily
good, since it allows debris or water a longer time to fall
on you.
25
The military and films teach people to bound down a
slope, taking great leaps against the rock. This isn't a
good idea in caves. First, the drop is likely to be
constricted, preventing this motion. Second, it puts a
strain on the rope with each bounce. Third, it may dislodge
unstable rocks on the lip which could damage the rope.
As you descend, the friction will gradually lessen
because the weight of the rope below you becomes less. On
drops over 100', this may become a problem because you may
not be able to stop to add a brake bar or rearrange the
rope's path for better friction. For this reason, additional
______
friction should be added before it is needed.
It is possible to descend very long pitches so fast that
the rappel device gets very hot. This is not generally a
problem with nylon ropes, but in extreme cases, you should
avoid stopping abruptly without allowing time for the device
to cool. You need not worry until the device gets above
o
100 C, at which point it will sizzle when you spit on it.
_ _ _________
7.8 Unrigging
Continue descending in a sitting position until you are
almost sitting on the ground at the bottom. At this point
you can kick to swing to a safe point. Swing away from
falling water, pools of water, and the remaining rope. Stand
up. Do not stand on the rope. Pull sufficient rope through
the device to let the rope hang slack. Unthread the rope
from the device. Get away from the drop zone as quickly as
possible. You are in constant danger of falling rocks there.
See the hint below in the section titled ``Descent to
Ascent''.
_ _ __________
7.9 Signalling
Signal ``off rope'' with a yell or a whistle.
26
_ _________ __________
8. Ascending Techniques
As with descending, you should approach the ascent with
care and preparation. You should follow a planned set of
steps to insure the safety of yourself and your companions.
Ascending will take considerably longer and more effort than
descending. Do not become discouraged. Even slow progress
is progress, and it takes practice to get into a climbing
rhythm. Here are the steps.
1. Make sure the area is clear and that the other
members of your party know you are preparing to
climb.
2. Thread the rope through your climbing system.
3. Signal ``on rope''.
4. Have another member of your party check your rig.
5. Begin climbing
6. Climb at a comfortable pace.
7. Negotiate the lip.
8. Unrig.
9. Signal ``off rope''.
It is important to follow these steps completely, and in
order. Once they are learned, they can be done safely and
automatically even under duress.
_ _ _________ ___ ______
8.1 Preparing For Ascent
Make sure your harness is on properly. Adjust it high
on your body. Make sure there is no one close to the lip to
kick debris on you before approaching the rope. Carbide
cavers should extinguish their lamps and switch to electric.
Packs and gear should be clipped onto your seat harness.
_ _ _______ __ ___ ____
8.2 Rigging On The Rope
Try to rig on out of the drop zone if possible. If you
must remove your gloves, put them where you can get them
without bending over. Check to make sure which end of the
rope is up. Rig the bottom device first, then work upwards
(otherwise, you may have trouble bending over to attach the
27
bottom ones!). Make sure that you don't accidentally wrap
any pieces of your rigging around the rope, such as floating
cam pullers, seat slings or Gibbs cam strings.
_ _ __________
8.3 Signalling
Signal ``on rope'' to those at the top, by yelling or
whistling.
_ _ ________
8.4 Checking
Have another member of your party check your rig before
you start to climb.
_ _ _________ ___ _____
8.5 Beginning The Climb
Proceed to the drop zone. Don't walk on the rope. Your
initial climbing steps will take up slack. Adjust your
starting point to avoid swing and spin. Once you are
actually off the ground, loop the bottom of the rope under
your bottom foot and hold it in one hand. By pulling up on
this loop with your hand, you will allow the bottom descent
device to ``catch'' properly on the loose bottom rope.
Continue this until you are 10-20 feet off the ground, at
which point the weight of the rope below you will be
sufficient to allow the device to catch. Sometimes a quick
kick sideways is sufficient to get it to catch.
_ _ ______
8.6 Pacing
Start with a gentle pace. Only experienced climbers in
good condition can actually climb as fast as they can go up
stairs. The rest of us mortals should find a comfortable
pace that doesn't require resting more than once every couple
minutes. The rhythm is more important than the visible
progress when learning to climb. If you start your climb too
quickly, you will be too tired to learn the rhythm properly.
If something isn't working, a floating cam isn't being pulled
up properly, for example, fix it immediately. The higher you
climb, the more difficult it is to fix a problem or back
down.
_ _ ___________ ___ ___
8.7 Negotiating The Lip
Negotiating the lip is often the hardest part of an
ascent. Rest your arms at the highest possible point below
the lip. On a lip where the rope bends sharply horizontal,
the big problem is to force the upper ascent device over the
28
edge while the rope is under tension from your weight. To do
this, first climb until the upper device is tight up to the
edge of the lip. Then bring your legs up and set your lower
device high enough so that you will clear the lip when you
____ ____
stand on it. Finally, push hard with your arms away from the
lip, while pushing up with your legs. This will force your
upper device past the lip. Now set your upper device and put
your weight on it. This should allow you to continue
climbing with your legs over the lip. Floating cam systems
often get caught, and if something isn't working, take a
moment to check why. Try not to drop rocks on those waiting
below.
This is where Jumar and CMI ascenders show their colors.
You can unclip your upper Jumar from the rope with one hand,
reach over the lip, and reattach. This will make it much
easier to push yourself over the lip, since most of your
_____
weight will be borne by the rope above the lip. Some Gibbs
climbers even carry a spare Jumar hooked to their seat
harness for just this purpose.
_ _ _________
8.8 Unrigging
Once you are in a safe position, unclip your rig from
the rope. Don't rest too long, have consideration for those
waiting their turn below. Work from the bottom up, as you
rigged on. This allows you a margin of safety should you
slip if you have trouble. Once you are unclipped, move away
from the lip to a safe location.
_ _ __________
8.9 Signalling
Signal ``off rope'', by yelling or whistling.
_ __ ________ _______
8.10 Climbing Systems
The term ``climbing system'' refers to the arrangement
of ascenders, slings, and attachments used during the actual
rope climbing phase. Two systems predominate in the Boston
Grotto, the floating cam ropewalker system using Gibbs
ascenders and the Mitchell system using Jumars or CMIs. With
either system, the length of the slings must be adjusted for
each individual. A poorly adjusted system is uncomfortable,
tiring, and dangerous. It is not necessary to own or use
both systems, either one is adequate in most Boston Grotto
climbs.
29
_ __ _ __________
8.10.1 Ropewalker
The ropewalker system is preferred for its climbing
efficiency (lack of wasted energy) and because it conserves
arm strength. It is especially preferred for long climbs,
over 100'. In these climbs the climbing time dominates, so
the longer time clipping the Gibbs to the rope is not a
problem.
In this system, the lowest Gibbs is tied directly above
one foot using a sling with loops around both the foot and
ankle. It is important not to use too much sling for this
arrangement, since it can tighten up and strangle your foot.
A pre-tied stirrup with a built-in chicken loop is best.
Since the Gibbs for the other foot must ride higher, it
is connected to the stirrup with a sling that is about knee
height. The higher the upper Gibbs is attached, the higher
step you can take with your lower foot. The shell of this
Gibbs is attached to an elastic shock cord. The shock cord
is passed over a shoulder and attached to the chest or seat
harness with a small clip. This cord needs to be long to
allow a long high pull. The cam of this upper Gibbs is also
attached to the seat harness. This prevents you from falling
completely upside down if the safety Gibbs fails. With 3
connections, this is the most complex part of the ropewalker
system. Considerable care is sometimes necessary to insure
that none of these connections wraps around the rope.
The rope then passes through your chest harness or box.
The safety Gibbs is attached to the rope above the chest
harness and to your seat harness with rope or webbing. This
will ride loosely on the harness while climbing, but can be
instantly set if you need to rest or fix a problem. Don't
make the webbing too long. This will make the safety hard to
set and unset.
_ __ _ ________ ______
8.10.2 Mitchell System
The Mitchell system using Jumars or CMIs is preferred
for its simplicity. For short drops, the time to clip on and
off can dominate the climbing time. The Mitchell system
requires much less set-up time than the ropewalker, and is
very quick to clip on and off the rope. This can be
important in caves with many short drops, or when you must
cross a knot or other obstacle. The disadvantage is that it
requires the climber to push the Jumars up for each step with
hands and arms. Jumars are more expensive than Gibbs and
must be bought in pairs, left and right hand versions.
In the Mitchell system, ropes or slings are hung from
the Jumars to each foot. Chicken loops around the ankles
30
prevent the loops from slipping off the feet. The lower
Jumar is attached above the knee. A safety line also goes
from there to the waist to prevent flipping.
The upper Jumar is attached to the other foot, through
the chest box (or under the chest carabiner), and attached to
the rope above the box. The rope also goes through the chest
box (or under the carabiner). A safety Gibbs or Jumar is
attached to the seat sling. It is hung from the attachment
rope to the upper climbing Jumar.
In use, the Jumars are raised alternately, stepping with
one foot while raising the opposite leg and raising the Jumar
attached to it with your hand. This is tiring on the arms
and takes practice to learn a smooth rhythm.
31
_ ______ _____
9. Useful Knots
Some of the useful knots to know are:
_______
1. Bowline: Useful for rope rigging with a short end
and no carabiner.
_______ ____
2. Carrick Bend: Strongest knot for joining two
equal diameter ropes.
______ _________ _ ____
3. Double Fisherman's knot: Most secure knot for
joining two unequal diameter ropes.
______ _
4. Figure 8: Useful for making stopper knot at the
lower end of a rope.
______ _ ____
5. Figure 8 loop: Preferred knot for tying off a
rigged rope. The load bearing strand should go
around the OUTSIDE of the bend in the first loop
for maximum strength.
_____ ____
6. Water knot: This is for tying loops of webbing.
It is just a simple overhand knot tied with the
two strands passing through the same knot in
opposite directions.
32
__ ______ __________
10. Rescue Techniques
Rescue with SRT generally involves raising or lowering a
passive load (an incapacitated person) using a single rope.
Generally, this is accomplished by turning the normal
techniques around, letting the rope move while the friction
and climbing devices are statically attached at the top.
__ _ _____ ___ ____
10.1 Avoid The Need
If your party has descended a pitch in a cave using SRT,
and someone is injured, you will need to know SRT rescue to
get them out. This is a real emergencyMeven a relatively
slight injury can suddenly become life threatening. For this
reason, it is important to be extra careful once you have
descended a pitch in a cave. Leg, torso, and head injuries
are particularly dangerous. The trip members should not
tolerate any reckless stunts and the entire party should
observe all safe caving practices rigorously.
__ _ ______
10.2 Pulley
The most important piece of extra equipment needed for
SRT rescue is a heavy duty pulley. Pulleys are available
from most caving suppliers. One member of the party in any
serious SRT trip should bring at least two.
__ _ _______
10.3 Rigging
In rescue SRT, the rope moves up and down, with the
victim tied securely to the end. Thus, it isn't strictly
necessary to attach the rope at the top. This is done,
however, to avoid losing the rope if all else fails. The
main requirement is to have a method to hold the rope
securely, while still allowing it to move. The normal
solution to this problem is to securely attach a Gibbs
______
ascender to a strong anchor, then rig it to the rope upside
____
down. The anchor attachment should be at least as strong as
for normal rigging, and preferably stronger, since it may
need to take a much greater load. This will allow the rope
to freely move up, but can hold tight to prevent its descent.
If possible, it is recommended that a person, in
communication with both the victim and the haulers, should
attend this safety Gibbs at all times. He should set the
tension on the safety at the first sign of trouble.
33
__ _ ________
10.4 Lowering
In lowering, the safety Gibbs is supplemented with a
______
rappel rack, also anchored securely, also mounted upside
____
down. Usually, a caregiver also clips onto the rope, just
above the victim, to negotiate the lip and fend off snags and
falling debris. The attendants at the top use the rappel
device to slow the rope's descent. If the rope begins to
slide out of control, the safety attendant can set the safety
Gibbs and stop it. This allows the other attendants to add
more friction, perhaps another rack. More friction than
normal is needed, because of the extra weight of the
caregiver.
__ _ _______
10.5 Hauling
The main problem in SRT Rescue is hauling a dead load up
a vertical pitch. As with descent, a fixed safety Gibbs is
manned at all times to prevent catastrophe. In addition, you
must be able to safely lift the load, however slowly, to the
top using insufficient manpower. This isn't as hard as it
might sound. With 3 pulleys and a couple dozen feet of extra
rope, it is usually possible to rig a system with a 4-1
mechanical advantage. This is generally sufficient to allow
a single hauler to rescue a single victim of equal weight,
albeit slowly.
The real killer is the friction in the hauling system.
If the main rope must cross a sharp lip, or one of the
reversals in the hauling system is not a pulley, the friction
equivalent of another person is added. This problem is best
overcome by using pulleys and using the least amount of
mechanical advantage necessary to do the job.
It is generally preferable for a caregiver to climb with
the victim. If another rope can be rigged, he can climb on
his own. Otherwise, he must be hauled up along with the
victim. This will put a great strain on the rope, the
anchors, and the equipment. Thus, the rigging should be
chosen carefully and inspected before putting a load on it.
Only high strength equipment should be used.
__ _ _ ______ ____
10.5.1 Direct Haul
If 3 or more haulers are available for a single victim
load, it is generally preferable to avoid a mechanical
advantage rig. The extra friction and complication make it
not worthwhile. In any hauling system, the haulers should
not be pulling the rope with their hands. Instead, they
should wear their seat harnesses, and attach their safety
______ ____
(Gibbs, Jumar) to the rope upside down. This will allow them
34
to pull using their entire leg strength, even if their arms
are tired or busy. In a direct pull system, they will rig
directly to the main rope. This is by far the most effective
method and should be used if at all possible.
__ _ _ __________ _________
10.5.2 Mechanical Advantage
If there is insufficient human strength to allow a
direct haul, a mechanical advantage system must be used.
Generally, there is insufficient extra rope to rig a
mechanical advantage system over the full length of the
pitch. This problem is usually overcome by rigging the
entire hauling system at the top of the pitch. This is done
by attaching a second Gibbs (the haul Gibbs) to the main
rope, above the safety Gibbs. The rest of the mechanical
advantage system is rigged to the haul Gibbs, with a separate
rope. I will call this the ``haul rope'', to distinguish it
from the ``main rope'' which holds the victim. The haulers
attach themselves to the haul rope as they would to the main
rope on a direct haulMusing seat harnesses and ascending
devices.
I will not attempt to describe the rigging methods for
the various mechanical advantage systems, words are too
confusing. I will describe the general pros and cons, and
the methods of working them, once they've been set up.
The more the mechanical advantage, the longer haul rope
is needed, and the less each cycle of the system will raise
the victim. In addition, substantial complexity is added
with each level of advantage. This increases the chance of
tangles, decreases the speed, and increases the friction.
For this reason, the only practical mechanical advantage
systems are the 2:1, the 3:1, and the 4:1. A 2:1 system has
the additional advantage of needing only 1 pulley. The 3:1
requires 2 and the 4:1 system requires 3 pulleys. A 3:1
system is a good all-purpose method. It is usually called a
``Z-rig'', for the path the rope travels in itM-with pulleys
at the corners of the Z. The 4:1 system, gives a lot of
advantage, but is slow. With a properly rigged 4:1 system,
it is usually possible for a single hauler to bring up a
victim.
The mechanical advantage system is run in cycles.
First, it is stretched out to its full length with the haul
Gibbs as low as possible on the main rope. The ``Designated
Caller'' (DC) directs the action, to prevent confusion. When
____
everything is ready, the DC calls ``Haul'', and the haulers
begin pulling on the haul rope. When the system has reached
___
the end of its travel, the DC calls ``Set''. The safety
Gibbs is then locked and the haulers can relax. The DC then
_____
calls ``Reset'', and the system is stretched out again to its
35
original position. This completes 1 cycle. The cycle is
repeated as many times as possible to raise the victim the
full way.
Care must be taken at the lipMwhere the victim and the
haulers are in most danger of falling and dislodging debris.
This is especially true when the victim reaches the safety
Gibbs. If necessary, a new safety should be rigged higher if
the victim is still unsafe at this point.
__ _ ______________ ______
10.6 Counterbalance Method
Another method often works as well or better than the
hauling methods described above. This is called the
counterbalance method. This has the advantage of requiring
little or no strength on the part of the haulers. With this
method, a pulley is anchored at the top of the pitch, and the
main rope is threaded through it. The victim is attached at
the bottom, and a counterweight, usually a heavier caver, is
attached at the top, on the other side of the pulley. The
victim can then be raised by allowing the counterbalance to
drop.
The relative weights of the victim and the
counterbalance can be adjusted with judicious use of packs
filled with rocks. Care must be taken at the top to insure
the safety of the victim and the counterbalance. If a
caregiver must be hauled up with the victim, a 2 person
counterbalance can be used. This will put a tremendous
strain on the pulley and its anchorMonly a high strength,
large diameter rescue pulley should be used for this
maneuver.
36
__ __________
11. Practicing
As has been said above, the practicing of these
techniques in safety above ground is the biggest determinant
of their safety when used underground. Noone should try any
of these techniques for the first time in a cave environment.
Given in this section are some suggestions for practicing
these techniques and various rules and etiquette that are
followed.
__ _ _______ ______
11.1 Falling Debris
Falling debris is a bigger cause of accidents in SRT
than falling people is. In many cases, the rock at the top
of the pitch is very brittle or loose. In these cases it is
nearly impossible to avoid dislodging gravel when crossing
the lip either up or down. There are several actions you can
take to minimize this hazard. In case you accidentally
dislodge debris from any height for any reason, the standard
____
procedure is to shout ``Rock'' as loud as is necessary to
warn those below. This is the universal warning to take
shelter from falling objects. If you hear this cry, you
should proceed with all deliberate speed away from the drop
zone, preferably under a safe overhang. This same rule
applies to anything you drop yourselfMflashlight, carabiner,
pack, etc. The person below doesn't much care what is
falling, but he might not understand what you are saying if
____
you yell anything other than ``Rock''.
__ _ _______ ___ _________
11.2 Rigging And Unrigging
Sometimes the biggest delay in a climb is waiting for
people to rig and unrig their harnesses to and from the rope.
For this reason, it is a good idea to practice this on your
own away from the bottleneck of a rope in a cave or climbing
practice. One good thing about this kind of practice, it
doesn't take a long ropeMit can be done just about anywhere
8-10' of free rope can be hung.
__ _ ________
11.3 Climbing
Surprisingly, climbing a long rope can also be practiced
at a short drop. This is done by rigging a pulley. From a
tree or other location 20-30' high, the climber can get high
enough to prevent difficulty with his lower ascender, and a
helper can pay out additional rope from the ground through
the pulley to allow the climber to ascend an arbitrary
distance. Simply rig a descending device, preferably a
rappel rack, upside down from a fixed object and run the rope
through it to the pulley.
37
__ _ _____ __________ __ ________
11.4 Other Techniques To Practice
A variety of special techniques should be practiced at
least occasionally to insure their safe execution if they are
ever needed.
__ _ _ _______ __ ______
11.4.1 Descent To Ascent
In descending a pit, it is sometimes the case that the
rope does not reach safely to the bottom. In this case, the
rappeller must switch to a climbing mode while still on the
rope. This isn't usually too difficult, but is much easier
with practice.
Hint: if you rappel down a long shaft, and the rope
__ ___ _____
just barely reaches the ground, do not unrig. Switch
immediately to ascending without disengaging yourself from
the rope. It is likely that the rope was originally too
short, but it has stretched to the floor under your weight.
If you unrig, it will spring back up out of reach and you
will be stuck.
__ _ _ ______ __ _______
11.4.2 Ascent To Descent
If you have a problem with your climbing system, it may
be wise to return to the ground to repair it instead of
continuing. Backing down the rope, especially with a
ropewalker system, is rather tedious. This is the occasion
when knowing how to switch over to descent comes in handy.
Hint: This is harder than switching the other way. The
problem is: once you've attached your descent device, how do
you unload your safety ascender to begin the rappel? The
standard solution: leave your lowest ascender on the rope
until last. Use it to step up to unload the safety, then
load the descent device, and lock it off. Finally unrig the
lowest ascender. Another good idea is to rig a ``lever'', a
non locking carabiner, over your safety Gibbs and through the
hole in the cam. By weighting the ``lever'', you can
unweight the cam, thus releasing it.
__ _ _ ________ ____ ___ _____
11.4.3 Crossing Lips And Knots
Occasionally, the party will not have an adequate length
rope and will make one by tying two shorter ropes together.
This should be done so as to make the knot as low as
possible, to eliminate exposure while negotiating it.
Crossing a knot on ascent isn't usually too difficult,
especially with a Jumar system where the device can be rigged
and unrigged with one hand. Generally, the ascending devices
38
are removed and replaced over the knot one at a time, working
from the top.
The same is true when crossing a lip if the ``Push and
stand'' method cannot be used. In these cases, a common
remedy is to use a short length of rope for the single
purpose of negotiating the lip. The climber first transfers
his weight onto the short rope, then negotiates the lip.
On descent, however, it is a little trickier. As
described above, the biggest problem is usually the last
step, where the rappel device is attached below the obstacle,
but a safety ascender is attached and loaded above it out of
reach. The only way to remedy this problem is to find a way
to climb up to the offending device and unload your weight
from it. If all else fails, you can accomplish this by tying
a foot loop in the rope below the descent device, and
standing in it to reach the offending device.
This trick is also occasionally needed if hair or loose
clothing is caught in the descent device. The descent device
is first unloaded by attaching a safety ascender above the
descender and transferring weight to it. The descender can
now be unthreaded. Descent is then resumed as above.
__ _ _ ________ ______
11.4.4 Climbing Tandem
On long drops, the waiting for the climbers can become a
real danger since it is difficult to stay warm while waiting.
For this reason, it is a frequent practice to have two people
climbing the rope at the same time. Standard 11mm caving
ropes are easily strong enough to withstand this additional
load. It is especially important that the rope should not be
allowed to wear unprotected on a lip or projection, however.
The ease with which the rope can be cut increases
dramatically when it is under a heavy load.
The normal custom is for the climbers to stay very close
together. This is generally accomplished by putting the
stronger climber underneath the weaker one. The climbers
should try to stay 20-30 feet apart at most. The reason for
this is to prevent injury should the top climber dislodge
some debris onto the lower climber. The climbers take turns
climbing, this prevents excessive bouncing which is difficult
to cope with.
The top climber faces some special benefits and
liabilities with this arrangement. First, the rope is
extremely stiff due to the large weight immediately below.
This means he can stay upright easier, and the the ascending
devices usually work better, no trouble ``catching'' the
Gibbs. Unfortunately, it also magnifies any discomfort with
39
the climbing system. In particular, the ascenders and
harness will conform strictly to the linear shape of the
rope. Any twist or misalignment of the system will quickly
cause discomfort to the top climber. This is especially true
of the lower ascender of a ropewalking system. Moreover, it
is impossible for the upper climber to negotiate a sharp lip
with the ``push and stand'' method described above. Use the
same techniques described in the previous section to remedy
this.
__ _ ______ ________ _________
11.5 Grotto Climbing Practices
Boston Grotto climbing practices are usually held 2-3
times per year when the weather is nice. Attending the
practices allows you to try various pieces of equipment, see
how well various harnesses fit, and practice climbing and the
special techniques described above. Experienced climbers are
on hand to teach and assist.
The favorite climbing practice spot of the Boston Grotto
is in the Leominster State Forest, just south of Rt. 2 where
it passes Fitchburg, Mass. The cliff is called Crow Hill,
and is an easy hike (about 15 minutes) from the road. The
top of the cliff can be reached from an easy walk up the back
side of the hill, and allows a free drop of about 100 feet.
The top of the cliff offers a fine view of the central
Massachusetts countryside as far as Marlborough over 20 miles
away. Mt Wachusett rises majestically a short distance to
the southwest.
To get there, proceed west on Rt. 2 from Rt. 495 until
you get to the Rt. 31 intersection just past Fitchburg.
Turn south on 31 and proceed for about 2 miles, past a dump
on the left, and past the ``Entering Westminster'' sign.
There is a good parking lot on the left, just past the
swimming lake, at the ``Entering Princeton'' sign.
Unfortunately, this is frequently locked, or has an attendant
charging parking fees. If so, you can park on the right side
of the road, directly across from the swimming lake. You can
also park in the lot for the lake (the main attraction of the
park), but you must walk a little farther.
After parking, start up the trail on the right (west)
side, directly across from the good parking lot. Bear left,
continuing uphill, at an obvious junction. Proceed to the
bottom of the cliff. If a rope has already been rigged, you
can stay there and climb it. Otherwise, continue around the
cliff to the left and start climbing up when you get to the
first big pile of breakdown. Climb the breakdown only as far
as necessary to start working your way around to the right
again. Don't go straight up the whole wayMseveral of us have
gotten lost on the trails at the top of the hill this way.
40
Follow the well beaten trails to the right around to the bare
ledges and back into the trees - then down a short way to the
sheer cliffMit is about a 100' free fall. If there are rock
climbers there, please try to stay on good terms with them,
and warn them of the possibility of falling debris from
above, due to our activities.
In the past, the Grotto has used the Quincy Quarries,
long popular with rock climbers. These are a short way off
the SE Expressway in Quincy, Mass. They are popular with
Boston residents because they are within walking distance of
a T stop. The Grotto has not held a practice there since the
recent deaths and ownership squabbles. Is this still
possible?
The Grotto has also used an abandoned railroad bridge in
the Winchester Highlands, just South of Stoneham. In the
winter, you can even see the bridge from I-93. The
advantages of this site are that it is near Boston and
reasonable privacy. However, it offers only about 30 feet of
drop and is thus better suited to practicing cable ladder
climbs. Also, it is closed for half the year, and at night.
The grotto is always looking for an alternative climbing
location. If you know of one, please let us know.
41
__ _____ __ ___ ____ ___________
12. Where to Get More Information
There are a variety of publications concerning SRT.
Perhaps the best is called ``Single Rope Techniques'', by
Neil R. Montgomery. It elaborates on many of the ideas
presented here. It is published by the Sydney (Australia)
Speleological Society. It also gives an extensive list of
references.
Also of interest is Walt Wheelock's little book:
``Ropes, Knots, and Slings for Climbers'', published by La
Siesta Press.
These books and more are available from Speleobooks, Box
10, Schoharie, NY 12157. You can also order by phone with a
Mastercard or Visa, call (518) 295-7978.
The Vertical Section of the National Speleological
Society publishes ``The Nylon Highway'' newsletter. Back
issues are available for $2 each from Bill Bussey, P.O. Box
3742, Gastonia, NC 28054. Membership in the section is only
$3/year.
i
_____ __ ________
Table of Contents
_ ____________ _
1. Introduction 1
_ ________________ _
2. Acknowledgements 3
_ ___________ _
3. Controversy 4
_ ______ _
4. Caveat 5
_ _________ _
5. Equipment 6
5.1 Where To Get It 6
5.2 Personal Equipment 7
5.2.1 Climbing Helmet 8
5.2.2 Light Sources 8
5.2.3 Sturdy Boots 9
5.2.4 Climbing Gloves 9
5.2.5 Seat Harness 9
5.2.5.1 Minimal 9
5.2.5.2 Normal 10
5.2.6 Chest Harness 10
5.2.6.1 Minimal 11
5.2.6.2 Normal 12
5.2.7 Descending Devices 12
5.2.8 Ascending Devices 14
5.2.9 Equipment Carrying 15
5.2.10 Tools 16
5.2.11 Conditioning 16
5.2.12 Costs 16
5.3 Common Equipment 17
5.3.1 Rope 17
5.3.2 Pads 19
5.3.3 Carabiners 19
5.3.4 Bolts 19
_ _______ __________ __
6. Rigging Techniques 21
_ __________ __________ __
7. Descending Techniques 22
7.1 Preparing To Descend 22
7.2 Threading The Rope 23
7.3 Signalling ``On Rope'' 23
7.4 Checking 23
7.5 Adjusting Friction 23
7.6 Negotiating The Lip 24
7.7 Control The Descent Rate 24
7.8 Unrigging 25
7.9 Signalling 25
_ _________ __________ __
8. Ascending Techniques 26
ii
8.1 Preparing For Ascent 26
8.2 Rigging On The Rope 26
8.3 Signalling 27
8.4 Checking 27
8.5 Beginning The Climb 27
8.6 Pacing 27
8.7 Negotiating The Lip 27
8.8 Unrigging 28
8.9 Signalling 28
8.10 Climbing Systems 28
8.10.1 Ropewalker 29
8.10.2 Mitchell System 29
_ ______ _____ __
9. Useful Knots 31
__ ______ __________ __
10. Rescue Techniques 32
10.1 Avoid The Need 32
10.2 Pulley 32
10.3 Rigging 32
10.4 Lowering 33
10.5 Hauling 33
10.5.1 Direct Haul 33
10.5.2 Mechanical Advantage 34
10.6 Counterbalance Method 35
__ __________ __
11. Practicing 36
11.1 Falling Debris 36
11.2 Rigging And Unrigging 36
11.3 Climbing 36
11.4 Other Techniques To Practice 37
11.4.1 Descent To Ascent 37
11.4.2 Ascent To Descent 37
11.4.3 Crossing Lips And Knots 37
11.4.4 Climbing Tandem 38
11.5 Grotto Climbing Practices 39
__ _____ __ ___ ____ ___________ __
12. Where to Get More Information 41